Prehistoric India refers to the period in Indian history before the advent of written records. This era is broadly classified into three major phases based on the tools used, subsistence patterns, and technological advancements: Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic.
1. Paleolithic Age (Old Stone Age)
The Paleolithic period is the earliest phase of human history, characterized by the use of crude stone tools and a hunter-gatherer economy. It is further subdivided into three stages: Lower Paleolithic, Middle Paleolithic, and Upper Paleolithic.
Time Period:
- Lower Paleolithic: 2.5 million to 100,000 years ago
- Middle Paleolithic: 100,000 to 40,000 years ago
- Upper Paleolithic: 40,000 to 10,000 years ago
Key Features:
- Stone Tools: The early humans in India primarily used unmodified stones and pebbles as tools. In the Middle Paleolithic, more sophisticated tools like flakes and hand axes made from stone, bone, and wood began to appear. The Upper Paleolithic saw the development of microliths (small, sharp-edged tools) used in hunting and gathering.
- Subsistence: Early humans were hunter-gatherers, relying on wild animals, fruits, roots, and berries. They lived in small bands or tribes, moving frequently in search of food.
- Cultural Development: Evidence of cave paintings, rock shelters, and burial practices has been found, reflecting the growing intellectual and spiritual lives of early humans. Sites such as Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh) and Sahani in Uttar Pradesh have yielded important cave paintings and art.
Notable Sites:
- Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh): Famous for rock shelters and prehistoric paintings dating to the Lower Paleolithic.
- Lalitpur (Uttar Pradesh) and Soan Valley: Significant for Lower Paleolithic tools.
- Bhopal and Saraswati River region: Sites with evidence of Upper Paleolithic microliths.
2. Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age)
The Mesolithic period represents the transition phase between the Paleolithic and Neolithic eras, marked by a slight shift in lifestyle from pure hunting-gathering to a more diversified subsistence strategy, including some early forms of cultivation.
Time Period:
- Mesolithic: 10,000 to 5,000 BCE (approx.)
Key Features:
- Tools and Technology: The hallmark of the Mesolithic period was the use of microliths (tiny, finely crafted stone tools) made from chert and flint. These tools were typically used for making weapons, fishing implements, and other utensils.
- Subsistence: There was a shift towards more systematic hunting and gathering. Early forms of fishing and food storage were practiced. Evidence suggests that humans began to exploit new food sources such as fish, wild cereals, and small animals.
- Settlements: Mesolithic people lived in temporary settlements. They are often associated with sites near water sources like lakes and rivers, indicating a semi-nomadic lifestyle. Evidence of microlithic industries has been found in these areas.
Notable Sites:
- Bagor and Tilwara (Rajasthan): Early Mesolithic sites with evidence of microliths and animal remains.
- Kanmer (Gujarat): Known for early stone tools.
- Mirzapur (Uttar Pradesh): Rich in Mesolithic artifacts.
3. Neolithic Age (New Stone Age)
The Neolithic Age represents a major turning point in human history, characterized by the advent of agriculture, the establishment of permanent settlements, and the introduction of more advanced tools.
Time Period:
- Neolithic: 5,000 to 1,800 BCE (approx.)
Key Features:
- Agriculture: The most significant development of the Neolithic period was the beginning of agriculture. Early Neolithic communities in India began to cultivate grains like wheat, barley, and rice. The domestication of animals like sheep, goats, and cattle was also a key feature.
- Tools: Neolithic tools were polished stone implements, unlike the crude tools of the Paleolithic. These tools included sickles, axes, and grindstones. The shift towards specialized tools for farming marked a major advancement in technology.
- Pottery: Neolithic people began making pottery, both for storage of grains and for cooking. Pottery from the period is generally more decorated and refined than earlier periods.
- Settlements: Permanent villages emerged, and people began to engage in sedentary lifestyles. They lived in mud-brick houses or simple huts and had a more organized social structure. Archaeological evidence suggests the presence of domesticated animals, storage granaries, and early grain mills.
- Art and Culture: Neolithic people also engaged in decorative arts. Evidence of terracotta figurines, beads, and simple jewelry has been found at Neolithic sites.
Notable Sites:
- Mehrgarh (Baluchistan): One of the earliest known Neolithic sites in the Indian subcontinent (approximately 7000 BCE). It provides evidence of early agriculture, domestication of animals, and the use of pottery.
- Burzahom (Kashmir): Known for its Neolithic settlement, including pit dwellings and tools made from bone, stone, and antler.
- Chirand (Bihar): A key Neolithic site that reveals evidence of agriculture and domestication.
- Koldihwa (Uttar Pradesh): Another significant Neolithic site known for the cultivation of barley and rice.
Conclusion:
The prehistoric period in India spans several millennia, from the Paleolithic Age, where early humans relied on basic tools and hunting-gathering, to the Mesolithic Age, which saw the emergence of more sophisticated tools and semi-permanent settlements, to the Neolithic Age, marked by the rise of agriculture, settled life, and technological advancements. These stages reflect significant changes in human life, contributing to the foundation of Indian civilization. Understanding these phases is critical to understanding the evolution of human societies in the Indian subcontinent, which would later lead to the development of urban civilizations like the Indus Valley Civilization.
Key Takeaways for UPSC CSE Exam:
- Understand the timeline and key features of each phase (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic).
- Recognize the technological advancements, such as the evolution of stone tools and microliths.
- Note the shift in subsistence patterns, from hunting-gathering to agriculture.
- Identify important archaeological sites (Mehrgarh, Bhimbetka, Bagor, etc.) and their significance in reconstructing prehistoric life.
- Be prepared to discuss the impact of these periods on the social, cultural, and technological development of early Indian societies.