The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also known as the Harappan Civilization, is one of the oldest urban civilizations in the world, contemporary to ancient civilizations like Mesopotamia and Egypt. It flourished around the Indus River basin and its tributaries, covering parts of present-day Pakistan, India, and Afghanistan. The civilization is named after the site of Harappa (in modern-day Pakistan), one of the first sites discovered in the early 20th century.
The Harappan Civilization is renowned for its advanced urban planning, complex social structure, trade networks, and impressive architectural achievements. It is one of the most enigmatic ancient civilizations, primarily due to its undeciphered script and the lack of direct evidence regarding its political and social systems.
1. Time Period
- Approximate Dates: The Indus Valley Civilization existed from about 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE, with the peak of urbanization occurring around 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE.
- It is traditionally divided into three main phases:
- Early Harappan Phase (3300 BCE – 2600 BCE)
- Mature Harappan Phase (2600 BCE – 1900 BCE)
- Late Harappan Phase (1900 BCE – 1300 BCE)
2. Geographical Extent
The civilization flourished primarily along the Indus River and its tributaries. It extended across the regions of north-western India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan, covering a vast area of about 1.25 million square kilometers, which is far larger than other contemporaneous civilizations.
Key locations include:
- Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan)
- Mohenjo-Daro (Sindh, Pakistan)
- Dholavira (Gujarat, India)
- Lothal (Gujarat, India)
- Kalibangan (Rajasthan, India)
- Rakhigarhi (Haryana, India)
- Ganeriwala (Punjab, Pakistan)
- Chanhudaro (Sindh, Pakistan)
The civilization is also thought to have influenced regions as far as Southeast Iran, Afghanistan, and Central Asia through trade.
3. Urban Planning and Architecture
One of the most impressive features of the Harappan Civilization was its urban planning and architectural achievements.
- Cities and Towns: The cities were well-planned, with a high degree of regularity and organization. They were designed with a grid pattern, with streets and lanes running at right angles to each other, dividing the city into blocks. This level of planning suggests a centralized authority or governing body.
- Drainage and Sanitation: Harappan cities are known for their advanced drainage systems. Almost every house had access to a drain that was connected to a city-wide drainage system. Wastewater was carried through brick-lined drains, demonstrating a focus on hygiene and urban sanitation.
- Public Buildings:
- Great Bath (Mohenjo-Daro): This large rectangular structure is thought to have been used for ceremonial or ritual purposes, perhaps for bathing or purification.
- Granaries: Large granaries were found at Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, which suggests that the people practiced agriculture on a large scale and had surplus food for trade.
- Dockyards: Lothal is known for its dockyard, which indicates the importance of maritime trade.
- Residential Architecture: Houses were made of uniform-sized bricks and were often two-storied. They were equipped with private wells and courtyards. Some houses were large and had multiple rooms, while others were smaller, indicating a degree of social stratification.
4. Economy
The Harappan economy was primarily agrarian, but trade and craft production were also essential components.
- Agriculture: The economy was based on agriculture, with evidence suggesting the cultivation of wheat, barley, peas, sesame, and cotton. The people also practiced irrigation using the river systems and channels.
- Animal Husbandry: Cattle, sheep, goats, and buffalo were domesticated. Evidence of fishing and the use of shellfish has also been found, especially in coastal sites like Lothal.
- Crafts and Industry:
- The Harappans were skilled in producing pottery, beads, textiles, and metal goods. Bead-making (from semi-precious stones like lapis lazuli, turquoise, and carnelian) was a highly developed craft.
- Metallurgy: The civilization had expertise in working with metals like copper, bronze, gold, and silver. They created tools, weapons, and ornaments.
- Trade and Commerce:
- The Harappans traded extensively with Mesopotamia, Persia, and regions in Central Asia. Evidence of Harappan-style seals has been found in Mesopotamia, indicating trade.
- Weights and Measures: The Harappans used a standardized system of weights and measures, with cubical stone weights used for trade. This suggests a high level of economic organization and regulation.
5. Social Structure
While the social structure of the Harappan Civilization is not well understood, there are indications of a hierarchical society.
- Uniformity: The uniformity in urban planning, architecture, and materials used in different cities suggests some form of centralized control or a well-organized administrative system.
- Seals and Writing: The discovery of thousands of seals with indeciphered script suggests a class of scribes or literate individuals who may have had administrative or religious roles. These seals depict animals like unicorns, tigers, elephants, and mythical creatures and may have had a religious or commercial significance.
- Artifacts: The presence of figurines made of terracotta, including those of women with exaggerated features, and toys suggests that the civilization had some form of religious or ritual beliefs.
6. Religion and Beliefs
- The Harappans did not leave any direct religious texts, but their religious practices can be inferred from the artifacts and structures found at their sites. There are several possible features of their belief system:
- Mother Goddess: Terracotta figurines of women with exaggerated features are often interpreted as representations of a Mother Goddess, suggesting a fertility cult.
- Sacred Animals: The frequent depiction of animals on seals, particularly the unicorn, suggests they may have had totemic or symbolic associations with certain animals.
- Fire Altars: Some of the public buildings and domestic spaces appear to have been used for ritual purposes involving fire.
7. Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization
The decline of the Harappan Civilization is a subject of ongoing debate among scholars. Several theories have been proposed:
- Climate Change: A significant shift in the climate, including a decline in monsoon rains, may have led to changes in agriculture and water supply, causing the decline of urban centers.
- River Shifts: The Indus River may have changed its course or dried up, leading to the disruption of agricultural activities and trade routes.
- Invasion or Migration: Some scholars have suggested that invasions by the Aryans or other external groups might have led to the decline, but there is no clear evidence for this theory.
- Internal Decline: It is possible that the civilization faced internal pressures, including social unrest or economic collapse due to over-exploitation of resources, trade disruptions, or political decentralization.
By around 1900 BCE, the major cities of the Indus Valley began to decline, and by 1300 BCE, the civilization had largely disappeared.
8. Legacy of the Indus Valley Civilization
The legacy of the Harappan Civilization lies in its urban planning, trade systems, writing system, and craftsmanship. The knowledge of drainage systems, standardized weights and measures, and urban organization influenced later Indian civilizations. While the script remains undeciphered, the significance of the Harappan Civilization in shaping the early history of the Indian subcontinent is undeniable.
Key Takeaways for UPSC CSE:
- Understand the geographical extent, urban planning, and economic life of the Harappan Civilization.
- Recognize the cultural achievements like trade, metallurgy, craftsmanship, and religion.
- Focus on key sites such as Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Dholavira, and Lothal.
- Study the theories of decline and understand the ongoing debate about its causes.